Atmosphere

Quantifying the atmospheric water balance is critical for the study of hydrological processes in significant regions. This study quantified atmospheric water balance closure at 205 stations in mainland China on a monthly timescale from 2009 to 2018 using datasets from ground- and satellite-based observations and reanalysis data. The closure performances were firstly quantified using the mean and root mean square (RMS) of the residuals, and the possible influencing factors were explored, as well as the influence of different water balance components (WBCs) using different datasets. In the closure experiment using ERA5, the mean and residuals were 6.26 and 12.39 mm/month, respectively, on average, which indicated a closure uncertainty of 12.8%. Using ERA5 analysis as a reference, the closure experiment using different combinations revealed average mean residuals of 8.73, 11.50, and 15.89 mm/month, indicating a precipitation closure uncertainty of 22.0, 23.7, and 24.4% for the ground- and satellite-based observations and reanalysis data, respectively. Two possible influencing factors, station latitude and the climatic zone in which the station is located, were shown to be related to closure performance. Finally, the analysis of the impact from different WBCs showed that precipitation tended to have the most significant impact, which may have been due to larger observation uncertainties. Generally, the atmospheric water balance in mainland China can be closed using datasets from different observational techniques. Full article

The technology of CO₂ geological storage and CH₄ intensive mining (CO₂-ECBM) in coal seams integrates greenhouse gas emission reduction and new fossil energy development and has great development prospects. The CO₂ injection, CO₂ sequestration mechanism and storage capacity, and CH₄ stimulation effect constitute the core content of the effectiveness of CO₂-ECBM, among which CO₂ injection is the most critical. Traditional seepage analysis methods often struggle to tackle flow-related issues influenced by microscale effects and intricate channels. This paper highlights the advantages of employing lattice Boltzmann (LBM) numerical simulations to study CO₂ seepage behaviors when teaching a Rock Mass Seepage Mechanics Course. This course primarily covers topics such as the pore structure of rock, unstable liquid seepage, gas seepage theory and related subjects. Its goal is to provide students with a solid theoretical foundation to address the complexities of fluid seepage in pours media encountered in practical scenarios. A novel LBM-based methodology was employed to estimate the CO₂ seepage capacity by incorporating the effects of different concentrations of [Bmin]Cl solution (0 wt%, 1 wt%, 3 wt%, and 5 wt%). The CO₂ velocity distribution cloud map of each coal sample was simulated; the average velocity distribution curve of each coal sample was obtained; and the velocity profile of the seepage channel of each coal sample was described. This study can provide theoretical guidance for the technology of CO₂ geological storage and CH₄ intensive mining in coal seams. Full article

Our study and analysis of the distribution differences in raindrop spectra in a Guizhou precipitation prediction model were of great significance for understanding precipitation microphysical processes and improving radar quantitative precipitation prediction. This article selected the Dafang, Majiang, and Luodian stations at different altitudes in Guizhou and analyzed the distribution characteristics of precipitation particles at different altitudes. This article used precipitation data from the new-generation Doppler weather radar, OTT-Parsivel laser raindrop spectrometer, and automatic meteorological observation stations in Guiyang via M-P and GAMMA and established methods to fit the particle size of raindrop spectrum precipitation. Based on the LSTM neural network method, we constructed a precipitation prediction model for Guizhou and conducted performance testing. The results show that (1) the precipitation particles at the three stations are all concentrated in small particle size areas, with a peak value of 0.312 mm and a final falling velocity of 1–5 m/s, and the particle size increases with a decreasing altitude. The contribution rate to the density of particles with a precipitation particle size of less than 1 mm exceeds 80% and decreases with a decreasing altitude. The average volume diameter of precipitation particles has the highest correlation with the precipitation intensity. (2) In the fitting of the raindrop spectrum distribution, the GAMMA distribution fitted by the three stations has a better effect and the fitting effect gradually improves with an increasing altitude. (3) In precipitation prediction for convective clouds and stratiform clouds, the 60 min prediction results are the most consistent with the actual precipitation, with correlation coefficients of 0.9287 and 0.9257, respectively, indicating that the prediction has high reliability. Full article

A re-examination of some early classic turbulence literature, mainly of isotropic turbulence, is given in this selective review. Some early studies, including original concepts and points, are reviewed or highlighted. Two earliest studies and six major original concepts are found: (i) Lord Kelvin’s pioneering elementary studies of homogeneous, isotropic turbulence; (ii) Kelvin’s early introduction of Fourier Principles into turbulence studies; (iii) the Kelvin elementary concept of the direct energy cascade; (iv) the Kelvin early concept of the symmetry of turbulence; (v) the Taylor concept of the coefficient of eddy viscosity; (vi) the Taylor concept of the ‘age’ of the eddy; (vii) the Taylor–Fage–Townend concept of small eddies or microturbulence or small scale turbulence; and (viii) the Obukhov concept of a function of the inner Reynolds number (i.e., dependent coefficient) in both the balance equation and the energy distribution equation (the two-thirds law). Both Kelvin and Taylor should be regarded as the co-founders of the statistical theory of homogeneous, isotropic turbulence. The notion, ‘the Maxwell–Reynolds decomposition of turbulent flow velocity’, should be used. The Kolmogorov–Obukhov scaling laws are reviewed in detail. Heisenberg’s inverse seventh power spectrum is briefly reviewed. The implications or significances of these early studies, original concepts and points are briefly discussed, with special reference to their possible links with modern approaches and theories. Full article

This study aimed to identify the characteristics of atmospheric pollutants emitted by agricultural activities and to evaluate factors that may cause harm to human health. For the research, atmospheric pollutants were measured over the course of a year in representative rice farming and field crop farming areas in South Korea. The results confirmed that the characteristics of atmospheric pollutants in agricultural areas are influenced by the nature of agricultural activities. Specifically, when comparing rice paddies and field crop areas, during summer, the correlation between oxidative potential and levoglucosan—a marker for biomass burning—weakens due to less burning activity in the rice-growing season, leading to lower oxidative potential despite different PM_2.5 across areas. The study also finds that methyl sulfonic acid, indicating marine influence, plays a big role in keeping oxidative potential low in summer. This suggests that the main causes of PM_2.5-related health risks in the area are from biomass burning and external sources, with burning being a significant factor in increasing oxidative potential. Based on these results, it is hoped that measures can be taken in the future to reduce atmospheric pollutants in agricultural areas. Full article

Amidst global climate change and unsustainable human exploitation of water resources, water has emerged as a critical factor constraining global agricultural food production and ecological environments. Particularly in agricultural powerhouses like China, irrigation water accounts for a significant portion of freshwater resource utilization. However, the inefficiency of irrigation water usage has become a weak link in water resource management. To better assess irrigation water efficiency, an accurate estimation of regional irrigated areas is urgently needed. This study proposes a method for identifying actual irrigated areas based on remote sensing-derived evapotranspiration (ET) to address the challenge of accurately interpreting irrigated areas in tropical regions. Using Yunnan Province’s Yuanmou irrigation district as a case study, this research combined ground monitoring data and remote sensing data to identify actual irrigated areas through ET inversion and downscaling methods using the Penman–Monteith–Leuning (PML) model. In 2023, the total irrigated area interpreted from remote sensing in the study area was approximately 15,000 hm², with a comparison against validation points revealing an extraction error of 16%. The small error indicates that this method can effectively enhance the reliability of monitoring actual irrigated areas, thus providing valuable data support for agricultural irrigation water management. Full article

Climate is one of the key factors driving changes in vegetation, and the response of the vegetation to climate often occurs with a time delay. However, research on the cumulative lagged response of the vegetation to meteorological factors in large-scale regions is limited. Therefore, this study first evaluated the performance of the Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) products provided by Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and Penman–Monteith–Leuning (PML) over the past 20 years in China and then determined the lagged relationships between the GPP and major meteorological factors in different regions and land-use types in China based on a partial correlation analysis. The results indicate that (1) GPP_PML outperforms GPP_MODIS products in the regional context of China; (2) China’s regional GPP has shown a fluctuating upward trend over the past 20 years, with a stepwise increase in the multi-year average from the northwest inland to the southeast coastal regions, and a higher contribution from the southern regions than the northern ones; (3) unlike the recent upward trend in regional temperatures, both precipitation and radiation have decreased, with these two factors showing completely opposite multi-year trends in most regions; and (4) the proportion of regions with lagged effects of the GPP on meteorological factors is higher than those with cumulative effects in China. Among these, GPP exhibits a higher proportion of a 3-month lagged response to precipitation, which is particularly pronounced at altitudes between 500 and 2500 m and above 5500 m. the proportion of the areas with no lag cumulative response to temperature and radiation with GPP in China is the highest due to the influence of more barren land and grassland in the northwest interior. Simultaneously, grassland and barren land have a higher proportion of the non-lagged cumulative responses to temperature and precipitation. This study contributes to our understanding of vegetation dynamics in the context of global climate change and provides a theoretical foundation for regional ecological conservation and high-quality coordinated development. Full article

This study focuses on the open question of the electron temperature (T_e) variation with solar activity in the topside ionosphere at mid- and high latitudes. It takes advantage of in situ observations taken over a decade (2014–2023) from Langmuir probes on board the low-Earth-orbit Swarm B satellite and spanning an altitude range of 500–530 km. The study also includes a comparison with T_e values modeled using the International Reference Ionosphere (IRI) model and with Millstone Hill (42.6° N. 71.5° W) incoherent scatter radar observations. The largest T_e variation with solar activity was found at high latitudes in the winter season, where T_e shows a marked decreasing trend with solar activity in the polar cusp and auroral regions and, more importantly, at sub-auroral latitudes in the nightside sector. Differently, in the summer season, T_e increases with solar activity in the polar cusp and auroral regions, while for equinoxes, variations are smaller and less clear. Mid-latitudes generally show negligible T_e variations with solar activity, which are mostly within the natural dispersion of T_e observations. The comparison between measured and modeled values highlighted that future implementations of the IRI model would benefit from an improved description of the T_e dependence on solar activity, especially at high latitudes. Full article

The present study aimed to analyze the dynamics of vegetation within the Atrak catchment area, as well as its interplay with precipitation patterns. Moreover, additional emphasis was placed on exploring the impact of these dynamics on agricultural land cover type. To achieve this objective, the Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) derived from MODIS data and the Comprehensive Historical and Real-Time Satellite-based Precipitation (CHRIPS) data were utilized for the period from 2003 to 2021. Additionally, the Vegetation Condition Index (VCI) and Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) were employed to discern various degrees of drought and pluvial years within the Atrak basin. The study revealed that the years 2008, 2014, 2017, and 2021 exhibited the lowest vegetation coverage, while the years 2010, 2016, and 2019 showcased the most extensive vegetation extent. Notably, it was revealed from the VCI index that the year 2008 was the driest, and the year 2016 was the wettest. Furthermore, based on the SPI index findings, the years 2007, 2019, and 2020 were identified as pluvial years, while in the years 2008, 2014, and 2021 drought conditions occurred. All other years were classified as exhibiting normal conditions. Regarding seasonality, the observations ascertain that the spring season substantiates the most extensive vegetation cover, and a high correlation between spring precipitation and vegetation coverage was observed. Additionally, the anomaly detection outcomes indicate that the eastern regions of the basin have experienced an upward trend compared to the average of the first decade of the studied period. Full article

Extreme precipitation events, which are common natural hazards, are expected to increase in frequency due to global warming, leading to various types of floods, including pluvial floods. In this study, we investigated the probabilities of maximum 3-day precipitation amount (Rx3day) occurrences during spring in the Vojvodina region, covering both past (1971–2019) and future (2020–2100) periods. We utilized an ensemble of eight downscaled, bias-corrected regional climate models from the EURO-CORDEX project database, selecting the RCP8.5 scenario to examine future Rx3day amounts. The probabilities of occurrences of Rx3day were modeled using the GEV distribution, while the number of events where Rx3day in spring exceeds specific thresholds was modeled using the Poisson distribution. The results indicate that Rx3day with a ten-year return period during the spring months is expected to increase by 19% to 33%. Additionally, the probabilities of having more than one event where Rx3day exceeds thresholds are projected to rise by 105.6% to 200.0% in the future compared to the historical period. The analysis comparing the design values of Rx3day with future projections for the period 2020–2100 revealed that 51 drainage systems are likely to function without difficulties under future climate conditions. However, for the remaining 235 drainage systems, an increased risk of pluvial flooding was identified, as their design precipitation amounts are lower than the future projections. This study reveals that analyzing extreme rainfall events in the context of climate change yields crucial information that facilitates effective planning and policy making in water management, particularly flood protection. Full article

The microscopic pore structure of tight sandstone reservoirs significantly influences the characteristics of CO₂ flooding after water flooding. This research was conducted using various techniques such as casting thin sections, high-pressure mercury injection, scanning electron microscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) testing, and a self-designed high-temperature and high-pressure microscopic visualization displacement system. Three types of cores with different pore structures were selected for the flooding experiments and the microscopic visualization displacement experiments, including CO₂ immiscible flooding, near-miscible flooding, and miscible flooding after conventional water flooding. The characteristics of CO₂ flooding and the residual oil distribution after water flooding were quantitatively analyzed and evaluated. The results show the following: (1) During the water flooding process, the oil produced from type I and type III samples mainly comes from large and some medium pores. Oil utilization of all pores is significant for type II samples. The physical properties and pore types have a greater impact on water flooding. Type I and II samples are more suitable for near-miscible flooding after water flooding. Type III samples are more suitable for miscible flooding after water flooding. (2) In CO₂ flooding, oil recovery increases gradually with increasing pressure for all three types of samples. Type II core samples have the highest recovery. Before miscibility, the oil recovered from type I and type II samples is primarily from large pores; however, oil recovery mainly comes from medium pores when reaching miscibility. As for the type III samples, the oil produced in the immiscible state mainly comes from large and medium pores, and the enhanced oil recovery mainly comes from medium and small pores after reaching the near-miscible phase. (3) It can be seen from the microscopic residual oil distribution that oil recovery will increase as the petrophysical properties of the rock model improve. The oil recovery rate of near-miscible flooding after water flooding using the type II model is up to 68.11%. The oil recovery of miscible flooding after water flooding with the type III model is the highest at 74.57%. With increasing pressure, the proportion of flake residual oil gradually decreases, while the proportion of droplet-like and film-like residual oil gradually increases. Type II samples have a relatively large percentage of reticulated residual oil in the near-miscible stage. Full article

In this study, we investigate the seasonal and diurnal variations in cloud occurrence frequency, as well as cloud vertical structure (CVS) characteristics under different seasons and precipitation intensities over the Guangzhou region in South China, based on the analysis of millimeter-wave cloud radar (MMCR) and ground automatic weather station rainfall observations from May 2019 to August 2021. The results showed that the occurrence frequency of clouds exhibits a bimodal distribution throughout the year, with peaks in March to June and October, reaching its highest occurrence in May at approximately 80% and its lowest from December to February at around 40%. Additionally, there are distinct diurnal variations in occurrence frequency, with the lowest rates occurring around 0005 LST, rapidly increasing after 0006 LST, and peaking during the afternoon to evening hours. Cloud top height (CTH) shows bimodal distributions during the pre-flood and post-flood seasons. The most frequently occurring range of CTH during the pre-flood season is below 3 km, accounting for approximately 43%, while during the post-flood season, it ranges from 11 to 14 km, constituting about 37%. For precipitation clouds, CTH can extend beyond 12 km, with the radar reflectivity decreasing gradually with increasing height. The highest frequencies of radar echoes are observed below 2 km and between 4 and 7 km, exhibiting clear diurnal variations, with echoes mainly below 2 km and between 4 to 6 km during the early morning, intensifying and shifting to higher altitudes during the day and reaching their maximum below 4 km during the afternoon to nighttime hours, while both the frequency and intensity increase in the height range of 4 to 12 km. Vertical profiles of radar reflectivity and cloud ice/liquid water content (IWC/LWC) exhibit similar trends under different precipitation intensities. The main differences are observed below 4 km, where both radar reflectivity and IWC/LWC generally increase with increasing precipitation intensity. These findings contribute to a better understanding of cloud characteristics in the South China region, enhance the accuracy of model simulations, and provide a scientific basis for accurate forecasting and warning of meteorological disasters. Full article

The agricultural sector faces significant challenges worldwide due to climate change. The pressure exerted by altered thermal conditions drives the zonal shift for various cultivations. This study aims to analyze and present the spatiotemporal evolution of the growing degree days (GDD) index in the northern Mediterranean Basin (NMB). More specifically, this research presents the multiyear analysis of the GDD index, which is focused on a high-value vine cultivation derived from the E-OBS dataset. The investigated time period spans from 1969 to 2018, and the performed analysis indicates a broad shift/expansion in areas with GDDs exceeding 2000 heat units. This is present in traditional winemaker countries such as France and Italy. Still, it is also evident that there is a high positive change in countries such as Serbia, Bulgaria, and other Balkans countries. The findings may be helpful in the strategic planning of the agricultural sector in these countries or on a vinery scale. Full article

Dimethyl sulfides are ubiquitous odorous substances in eutrophic freshwater bodies. In this study, a simple headspace solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography-flame photometric detection method was developed to detect three representative algal-derived dimethyl sulfides in freshwater lake water samples: dimethyl monosulfide (DMS), dimethyl disulfide (DMDS), and dimethyl trisulfide (DMTS). The effects of extraction fiber, temperature, pH, ionic strength, and sample volume were investigated orthogonally, and the optimized method was applied to analyze surface water samples from Lake Ulansuhai in Inner Mongolia, China. Optimal extraction was obtained with a 50/30 µm DVB/CAR/PDMS extraction fiber, 20% ion concentration, 87 min extraction time, and 50 °C extraction temperature. The correlation coefficients of the standardized working curves for DMS, DMDS, and DMTS were 0.9967, 0.9907, and 0.9994, respectively, indicating good linear relationships. Limits of detection were in the nanogram range, and the recoveries of the spiked standards for DMS, DMDS, and DMTS were 97.22~99.07%, 93.39~99.34%, and 91.17~99.25%, with relative standard deviations of 5.18~5.94%, 3.08~6.25%, and 2.56~5.47%, respectively. This method is stable and reliable, and can be used for the determination of volatile sulfides in freshwater lake water. Full article

In this study, an overview of two years of research findings concerning the 2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha’apai (HTHH) volcanic eruption in the stratospheric environment is provided, focusing on water vapor, aerosols, and ozone. Additionally, the potential impacts of these changes on aviation equipment materials are discussed. The HTHH volcanic eruption released a large amount of particles (e.g., ash and ice) and gases (e.g., H₂O, SO₂, and HCl), significantly affecting the redistribution of stratospheric water vapor and aerosols. Stratospheric water vapor increased by approximately 140–150 Tg (8–10%), with a concentration peak observed in the height range of 22.2–27 km (38–17 hPa). Satellite measurements indicate that the HTHH volcano injected approximately 0.2–0.5 Tg of sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere, which was partially converted into sulfate aerosols. In-situ observations revealed that the volcanic aerosols exhibit hygroscopic characteristics, with particle sizes ranging from 0.22–0.42 μm under background conditions to 0.42–1.27 μm. The moist stratospheric conditions increased the aerosol surface area, inducing heterogeneous chlorine chemical reactions on the aerosol surface, resulting in stratospheric ozone depletion in the HTHH plume within one week. In addition, atmospheric disturbances and ionospheric disruptions triggered by volcanic eruptions may adversely affect aircraft and communication systems. Further research is required to understand the evolution of volcanic aerosols and the impact of volcanic activity on aviation equipment materials. Full article

Outdoor air pollution and biomass smoke exposure are related to the prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Since Osorno, Chile, is saturated with fine particulate matter (PM_2.5), the aim of this work is to determine the prevalence distribution of COPD patients in the Primary Health Care (PHC) system in the city of Osorno, and its relationship with PM_2.5. A cross-sectional descriptive study was carried out on COPD patients enrolled in the six PHC centers (PHCCs) of the city to assess the adjusted prevalence (population over 40 years). Gender- and territory-associated odds ratios (ORs) were also determined. In addition, an urban analysis of the distribution of PM_2.5 and an exploratory analysis of the spatial behavior of enrolled COPD patients through featured binning were carried out. In 2018, the city of Osorno had 809 enrolled COPD patients in the PHC system (55.1% female), with a 1.3% age-adjusted prevalence (inhabitants over 40 years old), which was 11.7% after underdiagnosis correction. The COPD patients were mainly between 70 and 79 years old (34.3%). The urban area under the administration of the PHCC Rahue Alto (PHCC-RA) had a higher OR (1.98 [1.73–2.26]) compared to the situation of the city. Also, air pollution (PM_2.5) was the highest in the PHCC-RA area, which could account for the observed prevalence. The number of COPD patients in this area is the highest in the commune, which increases the risk of complications derived from the disease and air pollution. Thus, territories with the highest COPD prevalence have the largest OR, which could complicate patients’ condition due to the high levels of outdoor air pollution. Full article

Morphological features of the Mediterranean Sea basin have recently been precursors to a significant increase in the formation of extreme events, in relation to climate change effects. It happens very frequently that rotating air masses and the formation of mesoscale vortices can evolve into events with characteristics similar to large-scale tropical cyclones. Generally, they are less intense, with smaller size and duration; thus, they are called Medicanes, a short name for Mediterranean hurricanes, or tropical-like cyclones (TLCs). In this paper, we propose a new perspective for the study and analysis of cyclonic events, starting with data and images acquired from satellites and focusing on the diagnostics of the evolution of atmospheric parameters for these events. More precisely, satellite remote sensing techniques are employed to elaborate on different high spatial-resolution satellite images of the events at a given sensing time. Two case studies are examined, taking into account their development into Medicane stages: Ianos, which intensified in the Ionian Sea and reached the coast of Greece between 14 and 21 September 2020, and Apollo, which impacted Mediterranean latitudes with a long tracking from 24 October to 2 November 2021. For these events, 20 images were acquired from two different satellite sensors, onboard two low-Earth orbit (LEO) platforms, by deeply exploiting their thermal infrared (TIR) spectral channels. A useful extraction of significant physical information was carried out from every image, highlighting several atmospheric quantities, including temperature and altitude layers from the top of the cloud, vertical temperature gradient, atmospheric pressure field, and deep convection cloud. The diagnostics of the two events were investigated through the spatial scale capabilities of the instruments and the spatiotemporal evolution of the cyclones, including the comparison between satellite data and recording data from the BOLAM forecasting model. In addition, 384 images were extracted from the geostationary (GEO) satellite platform for the investigation of the events’ one-day structure intensification, by implementing time as the third dimension. Full article

Atmospheric new particle formation (NPF) is an important source of aerosol particles and cloud condensation nuclei, which affect both climate and human health. In pristine environments, oxidation of biogenic volatile organic compounds (VOCs) is a major contributor to NPF. However, the impact of relative humidity (RH) on NPF from these precursors remains poorly understood. Herein, we report on NPF, as inferred from measurements of total particle number density with a particle diameter (d_p) > 7 nm, from three VOCs (sabinene, α-terpineol, and myrtenol) subjected to dark ozonolysis. From a series of comparative experiments under humid (60% RH) and dry (~0% RH) conditions and a variety of VOC mixing ratios (ξ_VOC, parts per billion by volume, ppb_v), we show varied behavior in NPF at elevated RH depending on the VOC and ξ_VOC. In general, RH-dependent enhancement of NPF at an ξ_VOC between <1 ppb_v and 20 ppb_v was observed for select VOCs. Our results suggest that gaseous water at particle genesis enhances NPF by promoting the formation of low-volatility organic compound gas-phase products (LVOCs). This is supported by measurements of the rate of NPF for α-pinene-derived SOA, where RH had a greater influence on the initial rate of NPF than did ξ_VOC and ξ_O3. Full article

The incoming solar radiation arriving the Earth’s surface is strongly influenced by surface terrain. Conventional global weather forecast models, with grid scales of about 10 km, lack the resolution to accurately capture terrain-induced variations. We devised a new parameterization method to incorporate high-resolution subgrid-scale terrain data into grid-scale radiative flux calculations without averaging or smoothing topographic features. Utilizing a 15″ digital elevation model from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, we computed subgrid-scale data and transformed them onto the Korean Integrated Model’s cubed sphere grid using a Voronoi diagram to maintain geographical accuracy. The new scheme was initially evaluated through offline ideal tests and case studies. The results demonstrated that the scheme accurately captured the variations in downward shortwave flux, keeping the mean flux on a global scale nearly constant. The global mean flux difference in all skies was less than 0.01%. Statistical analyses demonstrated improved temperature and geopotential height predictions compared to reanalysis data. The anomaly correlation coefficient for East Asia at 850 hPa increased by 0.036 at 240 forecast hours. Overall, the anomaly correlation coefficient and root mean square error of geopotential height and temperature showed enhancements, particularly in the Northern Hemisphere and tropics. Importantly, the scheme introduces negligible additional memory and CPU requirements, making it suitable for both regional and global models. Only a 0.58% increase in CPU time was observed for the 10-day forecast. Full article